Violation of logic. What are the types of thinking disorders? Thinking disorder: causes, symptoms, classification. Pathologies of the operational side of the mental process

Each person lives according to an individual scenario for reflecting reality. One may see a desert, another - an island of flowers among the sand, for some the sun is shining, but for others it seems not bright enough. The fact that each person sees the same situation differently depends on an important mental process - thinking. We analyze, evaluate, compare, and perform mathematical operations thanks to it.

Many specialists study the characteristics of thinking, most often psychologists and psychiatrists. In psychology, there are many different tests that have validity and reliability. Diagnostics of thinking are carried out to determine violations, as well as to search for methods of developing thinking. On the basis of psychiatric knowledge, pathological thought processes can be identified. After this, drug assistance is organized for people who have pathological functioning of this. What disorders of thinking can be observed?

What is the norm of a mental process reflecting reality?

To this day, many experts argue about how to correctly define the complex mental process of thinking. But so far there has not been a complete and meaningful thesis that would illuminate all the work that it carries out in our consciousness. This mental process is part of the intellect along with others (memory, imagination, attention and perception). Thinking transforms all information received from the outside, translating it into the plane of subjective perception of the environment around a person. A person can express a subjective model of reality with the help of language, speech, and this distinguishes him from other living beings. It is thanks to speech that a person is called the highest intelligent individual.

Perceiving various situations, with the help of speech a person expresses his conclusions and shows the logic of his judgments. Normal thinking processes must meet several criteria.

• A person must adequately perceive and process all information that comes to him from the outside.
• The assessment of a person must be within the framework of empirical foundations accepted in society.
• There is one that largely reflects the norms and laws of the entire society. Conclusions about any situation should be based on this logic.
• Thinking processes must proceed in accordance with the laws of system regulation.
• Thinking should not be primitive; it is complexly organized, therefore it normally reflects most of the concepts of the generally accepted structure of the world.

These criteria do not fit all people into the general rules of existence. No one has canceled the individuality of a person. We are talking about the majority as the norm. An elementary example: many people believe that eating after 21.00 is harmful, so everyone who has dinner later is not within the normal range. But in general this is not considered a deviation. So it is with thinking. There may be some incompatibilities with the generally accepted structure of the world by formal logic, unless these are gross violations of thinking.

Diagnostic methods

In order to determine the logic, flexibility, depth, criticality of thinking, how developed its types are, there are many ways to study this mental process. Doctors practice more examination at the organic level; diagnosis of thinking disorders is carried out using generally accepted medical equipment. They look through machines, look for pathological foci, conduct an MRI, an encephalogram, and so on. Psychologists use test materials in their work. Diagnosis of thinking in psychology can also be carried out using planned observation and natural or laboratory experiments. The most common tests for determining the characteristics of mental activity: the “Elimination of Concepts” technique, the Bennett test, the study of rigidity of thinking, and so on. To determine thinking disorders in children, you can use “Divide into groups”, “Trace the outline”, “Find the differences”, “Maze” and others.

Reasons for violations

There can be many reasons for disturbances in the complex mental process that reflects reality in our consciousness. Even now, experts have not come to a consensus about some pathological disorders in human thinking. They arise due to organic damage, psychoses, neuroses, and depression. Let's consider the reasons for the main deviations.

1. Cognitive disorders. They make the quality low. These disorders can occur at different levels of organization of the human body. At the cellular level, they prevent the patient from adequately perceiving the surrounding reality, which is followed by incorrect decisions about what is happening. These are pathologies such as Alzheimer's disease (dementia due to organic damage to the blood vessels of the brain), schizophrenia. When the brain is damaged, memory and thinking are impaired, which does not allow a person to perform usual activities, organize and classify objects. With poor vision, a person receives distorted information, so his judgments and conclusions may not correspond to the realities of life.
2. Pathologies of forms of thinking originate from psychoses. At the same time, a person is not able to organize information based on the generally accepted logic of things, and therefore makes unrealistic conclusions. Here there is a fragmentation of thoughts, the absence of any connections between them, as well as the perception of information according to external criteria, not between situations or objects.
3. Thought content disorders. Due to the weakness of the perception system (in particular, the transformation of external stimuli), a “skew” of emphasis occurs from real events to events that the subject has identified as having great value for him.
4. Insufficiency of systemic regulation. A person’s thinking is structured in such a way that in a problem situation he looks for ways out based on previous experience and processing information in a given period of time. Normally, systemic regulation helps a person abstract from surrounding discomfort, look at the problem from the outside, ask himself questions and look for constructive answers at the same time, and create a general plan of action. If this regulation is lacking, a person cannot quickly and effectively find a way out of the current situation. Such thinking disorders can be due to emotional overload, trauma, brain tumors, toxic lesions, inflammation in the forehead.

Types of pathological thinking

There are quite a lot of pathologies of mental activity, since this process is multifaceted. There is a classification of disorders that unites all the properties and varieties of the mental process that reflects reality. Types of thinking disorders are as follows:

1. Pathology of the dynamics of thinking.
2. Violations of the motivational part of the thought process.
3. Operational irregularities.

Pathologies of the operational side of the mental process

These violations affect the process of generalizing concepts. Because of this, the logical connections between them in a person’s judgments suffer; direct judgments, ideas about objects and various situations come first. Patients cannot choose from the many signs and properties of an object the most suitable for its most accurate description. Most often, such pathological processes occur in people with mental retardation, epilepsy, and encephalitis.

Violations of this type may also be characterized by a distortion of the generalization process. In this case, the sick person does not take into account the properties of the object, which are significantly related to each other. Only random characteristics are selected; there is no connection between objects and phenomena based on the generally accepted cultural level. This disorder of thinking is observed in schizophrenia and psychopathy.

Disorders affecting the dynamics of thinking

The diversity of the pace of mental activity, consistency and spontaneity characterize the dynamics of the process, which subjectively reflects reality. There are several signs indicating a violation of the dynamic side of thinking.

• Slipping. With normal and consistent reasoning about something, without losing generalization, patients begin to talk about completely different things. They may slip into another topic without completing the previous one, thinking in inappropriate associations or rhymes. At the same time, taking such reservations as the norm. Because of this process, the normal and logical train of thought is disrupted.
• Responsiveness. The process by which the patient responds to all external stimuli. At first he can reason critically and adequately, but then perceive all absolutely irritants as addressed to him, consider the objects at hand to be animate, which necessarily require help or his participation. Such people may lose orientation in space and time.
• Inconsistency. The sick person is characterized by inconsistent judgments. At the same time, all the basic properties of thinking are preserved. A person may inconsistently express logical judgments, analyze and generalize. This pathology is very common in people with vascular diseases, brain injuries, MDP, and also this disorder of thinking in schizophrenia, but it accounts for about 14% of the total number of diseases.
• Inertia. With the functions and properties of the thought process intact, the pace of actions and judgments is noticeably slower. It is extremely difficult for a person to switch to another action, goal, or act out of habit. Inertia often occurs in people with epilepsy, MDS, epileptoid psychopathy, and can also accompany depressive, apathetic, and asthenic conditions.
• Acceleration. Ideas and judgments that arise too quickly, which even affect the voice (it can become hoarse due to the constant flow of speech). With this pathology, increased emotionality occurs: when a person tells something, he gesticulates too much, gets distracted, picks up and expresses low-quality ideas and associative connections.

What does personality disorder mean?

For people with deviations in the personal component of thinking, the thinking disorders described below are characteristic.

• Diversity. Any value, judgment, conclusion can be “located” in different planes of thinking. With intact analysis, generalization and comparison, a person’s task can proceed in directions that are in no way connected with each other. For example, knowing that you need to take care of nutrition, a woman can buy the most delicious dishes for her cat, and not for her children. That is, the task and knowledge are adequate, the attitude towards the goal and the fulfillment of the task are pathological.
• Reasoning. The thinking of a person with such a pathology is aimed at “solving global problems.” In another way, this violation is called fruitless reasoning. That is, a person can waste his eloquence, instruct, and express himself in sophisticated ways without any particular reason.
• Ornateness. When a person explains something, he spends a lot of words and emotions for this. Thus, his speech contains unnecessary reasoning that complicates the communication process.
• Amorphous. In other words, this is a violation of logical thinking. At the same time, a person gets confused in concepts and logical connections between them. Strangers cannot understand what he is talking about. This also includes discontinuity, in which there is no connection between individual phrases.

The content of thinking is its essence, that is, the work of the basic properties: comparison, synthesis, analysis, generalization, specification, concept, judgment, inference. In addition, the concept of content includes ways of understanding the world - induction and deduction. Experts also add types to the internal structure of this mental process: abstract, visual-effective and figurative thinking.

A separate class of disorders in which a person’s thinking goes through a path of degradation are pathologies of its content. At the same time, its properties are preserved to some extent, but inadequate judgments, logical connections and aspirations come to the fore in the mind. Pathologies of this class include disorders of thinking and imagination.

Obsessions in a person

These disorders are otherwise called obsessions. Such thoughts arise involuntarily and constantly occupy a person’s attention. They may contradict his value system and not correspond to his life. Because of them, a person is emotionally exhausted, but cannot do anything about them. ideas are perceived by a person as his own, but due to the fact that most of them are aggressive, obscene, meaningless, a person suffers from their attack. They can arise due to traumatic situations or organic damage to the basal ganglion and cingulate gyrus.

Super valuable emotional ideas

These are seemingly harmless judgments, but they were identified as a separate pathological process - a disorder of thinking. Psychology and psychiatry work side by side on this problem, since highly valuable ideas can be corrected using psychological methods in the early stages. A person with such a pathology has preserved thinking properties, but at the same time one or a set of ideas that encourage action does not give him peace. It occupies a dominant place among all thoughts in his mind, exhausting a person emotionally and getting stuck in the brain for a long time.

Delirium as a disorder of the thought process

It is a gross violation of the thought process, since a person develops conclusions and ideas that do not correspond to his values, reality, or generally accepted ones. The patient considers them correct, and it is impossible to convince him otherwise.

This article begins a series of articles about logical errors in conversation. What is a logical fallacy? This is when you think you are right, but in reality you are not. This especially applies to conversations with “believers” and suggestible people. Therefore, we are considering religious examples, but in life you will learn so many similar examples from other areas, from politics, to health, and medicine. It is now fashionable to refer to “experts” and “authorities” in any field.

We consider 3 cases of logical errors in life:

1. Argument " majority". I do it because everyone else does it.

3. Argument " to tradition". These are our traditions, I can’t do it any other way!

To find out why so many people make mistakes and why so many people make not the most reasonable decisions in their and YOUR lives, it’s worth saying:

How does a person think -

He thinks according to patterns, according to samples, without spending much brain energy. Often uses the same mechanism. Now we will deal with them in order, and it will become clear to you how this happens.

1. Argument " majority". (argumentum ad populum).

The most popular and living logical fallacy: " Everyone does it, and I do it too". Or " Everyone believes and I believe", or " Everyone is coming and so am I". In a word, a person does not make decisions on his own, but shifts them onto all other people who supposedly “ know better". In a word, mindlessly repeating the actions of other people. As long as a child learns from his parents to walk, eat, talk, and communicate, this is useful and correct. After the child has grown up - you need to think with your own head, and not repeat after the same children. You are no longer a child!

Treatment: Ask the person: “ If everyone jumps out the window, jump - you will"? He will say, of course not. Secure the result. Tested many times.

When the question comes about your life, then the opinion of the majority is absolutely uninteresting to you!

Means: opinion from an “expert”«.

In our context, if something is said by “teacher”, “father”, “professor”, “official”, “president”, it is true.

Reality - you can see how many different shows, news, programs are currently on television, where they are constantly inviting “ experts", which carry such nonsense, which is difficult to listen to. Here in the picture in front of you is walking nonsense “ Authoritative SHAMAN » Dardo Cousteau, and this program is on television in 2015! In fact, shamans are a wild fantasy of days gone by, because if you are reading this material on the Internet, using a semiconductor computer, or a tablet or smartphone, and it runs on electricity from an outlet, or a battery, then what of this was created with using shamanic knowledge, dancing with a tambourine? Nothing. But because real science with a bunch of rigorous evidence doesn’t deal with such nonsense as sitting in a cheap T-shirt with a cheap pen, but calling yourself an “expert.”))) Are you really interested in his opinion?

What you were told that man "expert" doesn't mean anything. It doesn’t matter if it’s a politician, a doctor or a sports star on television. They can all be wrong and this is only their opinion, which must be supported by substantial evidence, and not mere words. Evidence means much more; it is more difficult to obtain than simply opening your mouth “for the truth.” The proof is in the "forecast" if a person has a prognosis at least once didn't come true, then the opinion of such a person divisible by two, and the further, the more often.

Again, this takes us back to the past, when you were children and the opinion of your parents meant a lot to you, they were your authority, the “expert” in all matters, and where we live, where the grass comes from, how the kettle works. The child is interested in all this, he doesn’t think that there is anything that you don’t know. So we grow up faster, and we begin to doubt that the expert knows something better than you.

Treatment: demand evidence from an “expert”.

3. Argument " to tradition". (argumentum ad antiquitatem).

Sounds: " my grandfather did it, his grandfather did it, and my grandfather’s grandfather did it, and I will do it«.

Tradition is good, but the tradition may be incorrect and outdated, not correspond to reality, but it needs changes. To the question: “Why are you a Christian, a Muslim, a Jew?”, you will receive only one answer: “I was born one, and I didn’t choose it.” Has your place of birth already determined which God you pray to? Is this your choice or tradition?

Reality - a person refuses to think about “should or shouldn’t be done”, but simply repeats what he was told. No originality, no independence. They told me to wear a cross, a Star of David, a crescent sign, and a pacifist sign—and I did. If you hear a similar argument in a conversation, it will be difficult to speak rationally. “Believers” are especially offended because this disrespect for “their” grandfather, their “tradition”“And you must respect him. The standard “you don’t respect my religion” line. But such reasoning does not bring us any closer to the truth.

I will tell you one experiment that scientists performed on monkeys in 1967. Link . His idea was how to get a group of monkeys to repeat the actions of another group.

So, the experiment consisted of 3 stages.

Stage one: 5 monkeys are sitting in a cage, there is a ladder, and at the top there is a banana. After one of the monkeys begins to climb the stairs, the remaining 4 are doused with ice water. They pour until they begin to attack the monkey, which is climbing the stairs. That's it, stage one has been successfully completed. 5 monkeys are sitting on the floor, a banana is hanging, no one is touching it.

Stage two: One monkey is replaced in the cage. The new one sees a banana, immediately begins to climb the stairs, and four from the first group rush at her. They throw once, they throw twice. After this, the monkey sits quietly, like everyone else. But no one watered it with water! She doesn't know why they are attacking her.

Stage three: All the monkeys are replaced in the cage one by one. Doesn't remain none of the first group, but they all sit quietly and peacefully, don’t touch the banana, and no one is familiar with water either. So why are they sitting? And because " these are the rules here”... “the grandfathers were sitting and we are sitting«… “banana is not food, it’s bad”…

This is how traditions are passed on, how customs are established. The old members of the group teach the young, and the young pass it on to their young ones. Even if you have learned some unnecessary thing, it will also be passed on to beginners, along with useful things.

The experiment ended like this. There were groups of monkeys that did not try to change anything, but attacked and attacked the newcomers. And there were groups in which there was a new leader who persistently climbed for a banana, gave back to the monkeys, " broke local rules“, he took the banana and showed that old fears are no longer needed, but only harm.

Therefore, be new leaders and perform new feats!

Researchers have not yet decided what constitutes a thought process. It is believed that it should be understood as one of the highest mental functions, through which a person perceives and generalizes information about the reality around him.

However, under the influence of external factors, people can partially or completely lose this ability. Thinking disorders are both temporary and permanent, and can be a consequence of mental and other disorders.

About thinking

Thinking is a specific feature that a person possesses. Through mental activity, people establish existing relationships between various external objects and phenomena. This process also allows us to determine a person’s subjective attitude towards objects and events in the real world. As a result, through thinking, a certain perception of the surrounding reality (point of view) is formed, which people can express through speech.

In essence, this process allows a person not only to get an idea of ​​the real world, but also to understand it. Moreover, mental activity is associated not only with concrete objects, but also with abstract concepts.

In the latter case, we are talking about the process of generalizing current realities: natural disasters, furniture, and so on. In the course of evolutionary development, humans have developed the ability to combine several objects or phenomena according to a certain characteristic. Such skills are called abstract thinking.

The formation of pictures of the internal and external world occurs through the analysis of cause-and-effect relationships. At the same time, a person, relying on his own abilities, subjects the results obtained during the thought process to verification, basing his judgments on previously acquired experience. For example, if a child, approaching the edge of the bed, fell, then in the future, having reached the same point, he will be able to imagine the further development of events and make an appropriate decision.

A thought disorder is diagnosed if a person does not meet the following criteria:

It is important to note that the criteria given are general. That is, non-compliance with one of them cannot be considered a deviation within the framework of accepted empirical, logical and other grounds.

For example, it has been established that eating after 9 pm is harmful to health. If most people comply with this rule, and a few people refuse, then the behavior of the latter is not considered a sign of mental disorders.

In medical practice, it is customary to distinguish the following types of thinking disorders:

• dynamics of thinking;
• logical (personal) thinking;
• associative (operational) thinking.

Due to the fact that thinking is a complex process that is subject to changes under the influence of many factors, it is not always possible for even an experienced specialist to determine the presence of violations.

Features of disorders of mental dynamics

Violation of the dynamics of thinking manifests itself in the form of the following processes.

Increasing the speed of the thought process

This thinking disorder is characterized by racing ideas. A person cannot stop and constantly produces them through speech, releasing a huge stream of associations into the world around him. Moreover, the speech itself remains incoherent and spasmodic. Any conclusions arise unexpectedly under the influence of any external or internal stimulus. Judgments about objects are superficial. Due to the endless flow of information, a person with this type of disorder often loses his voice.

These symptoms are supplemented by the following symptoms:

An important feature of this type of disorder is that in the patient’s statements, despite their surface, a certain meaning is hidden. A person with a violation of dynamic thinking is aware of his actions and understands the mistakes he makes. He retains the ability to eliminate them.

Inertia of thinking

This type of thinking disorder is characterized by the following symptoms:

• slow process of association formation;
• the presence of inhibition;
• lack of ability to form one's own thoughts.

The person retains the ability to speak, but answers to questions will be short and monosyllabic. The patient with serious difficulties moves on to a new topic of conversation.

Lack of consistency in judgment

With such a deviation, an unstable nature of judgments and associations is observed. However, the patient can analyze the current situation quite well, perceive and generalize the information received. This type of thinking disorder occurs against the background of mental disorders, as well as with brain pathologies (trauma, vascular diseases).

The emergence of responsiveness

Responsiveness refers to behavior that is uncharacteristic of a healthy person, in which the patient constantly and incoherently includes visible objects in his speech. In addition, patients experience disorientation in space and time, they may forget certain dates, names and events. The patient's speech becomes incoherent.

Mostly, responsiveness is diagnosed in people with vascular pathologies of the brain.

Slipping

This effect manifests itself in the form of an unexpected departure from the current topic of discussion. Moreover, the person slips into incoherent associations. Over time, the patient returns to the initial topic. Slipping occurs sporadically and suddenly. This effect is most often observed in schizophrenic disorders.

Disorders of personal thinking

Violations of logical thinking include the following phenomena.

Inability to generalize thoughts

Diversity of thinking is characterized by a lack of purposefulness in the patient’s actions. The latter is simply not able to generalize several objects by identifying one or more features in them. At the same time, the patient retains the ability to classify objects, but carries out such actions based on personal preferences: habit, taste sensations, etc. There is no objective judgment in the patient's conclusions.

Reasoning

A characteristic feature of reasoning is incoherent and lengthy reasoning that is conducted without a specific goal. The logic of judgments in speech is completely or partially absent. Words and phrases have no visible connection with each other. A person does not need a listener at the moment when he makes a speech. It doesn’t matter to him whether anyone responds to the thoughts he expresses. The patient needs to speak out. Reasoning is often observed in people suffering from schizophrenia.

Delirium

A delusional state is a disorder of the thought process in which the information expressed by the patient is abstract.

That is, in the spoken words and phrases there is no visible connection with objective reality and the environment. Moreover, the person himself is completely confident that his conclusions are true. It is not possible to convince him otherwise. An example of such phenomena is the state of anorexia. A person “sees” excess weight and strives to get rid of it in every possible way.

Lack of critical thinking and obsession

The lack of critical perception leads to the fact that the patient’s actions lose purposefulness. The patient is unable to regulate his actions.

A characteristic sign of an obsessive state is phobias.

As this problem develops, it leads to a gradual personality disorder.

Associative thinking disorders

Disorders of associative thinking manifest themselves in the form of:

It was already noted above that disturbances in the thought process arise for many reasons. Moreover, today there is no consensus on the relationship between individual diseases and pathological changes. The violations in question often arise due to the following problems:

1. Cognitive disorders. A decrease in intellectual abilities occurs against the background of the development of dementia, Alzheimer's disease, and schizophrenia. With such violations, a person is not always and not fully aware of what is happening, and loses the ability to control his actions. Depending on the area of ​​brain damage, there is a possibility that the patient will begin to perceive the surrounding reality in a distorted form.
2. Psychoses. Psychoses negatively affect a person’s thought processes, as a result of which the latter ceases to adequately respond and perceive the world around him. His judgments often do not correspond to generally accepted logic. The patient expresses incoherent thoughts.

Methods for studying violations

A psychologist studies thinking disorders. If the presence of such pathological changes is suspected, instrumental methods are initially used to diagnose them:

Instrumental research methods make it possible to establish the presence of a lesion in the brain and identify pathologies that can lead to impaired thinking. After completing this diagnostic stage, a psychologist works with the patient.

In order to establish the nature of the changes and the form of pathological disorders, various tests are carried out. In particular, for disorders of operational thinking and disorders, the following techniques are used:

• classification;
• exceptions;
• formation of analogies;
• defining concepts by comparing several objects;
• identifying the figurative meaning of established expressions (proverbs, metaphors);
• drawing pictograms.

Each of these methods makes it possible to assess a person’s ability to generalize incoming information, form an idea about it, and other important factors on the basis of which the final diagnosis is made.

Disturbances in a person’s thinking abilities occur mainly due to mental disorders and diseases that affect the structure of the brain. Such disorders manifest themselves in the form of incoherent expression of one’s own thoughts, incorrect judgments about objects and processes of the real world. To make an accurate diagnosis and identify the true nature of thinking disorders, psychological testing of the patient will be required.

violation of logic of reasoning- 1) A type of logical error that signals a contradiction between the content of the text and extralinguistic conditions. 2) One of the elements of the information model of the logic of speech, carrying information about contradictions in the text that appeared under the influence of... ...

Linguistic philosophy- (philosophy of “ordinary language”) a philosophical direction that has set as its main task the analysis of natural language using strict methods. The analysis was undertaken with the aim of identifying philosophically significant concepts (such as “good”, “evil”, “duty”, ... ... Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary

information model of speech logic- includes the following components: I. meaning: one of the main communicative qualities of speech; semantic cohesion of language units in speech, compliance with the laws of logic and correct thinking; II. forms of logic: 1) subject logic; 2) conceptual… … Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal

Logicality of speech- communicative quality of speech, which arises on the basis of the speech-thinking relationship. L.r. associated with the semantic and syntactic organization of both the utterance and the text. To achieve L.r. semantic consistency should be achieved... ... Pedagogical speech science

errors signaling a contradiction between the content of the text and extralinguistic conditions- 1) A type of error that violates the logic of speech. These include the following types: violation of the logic of reasoning, use of linguistic means inappropriate to the communication situation 2) One of the elements of the information model of the logic of speech, which contains... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal

RAVE- - a painful condition in which obsessive ideas, ideas, judgments completely capture a person and have such an impact on his thinking and behavior, as a result of which he loses the ability to distinguish between fiction and... ...

B. r. represent symptoms of meaningful thinking disorders. Kaplan and Zadok define delusions as false beliefs that cannot be eliminated by logical reasoning and that do not correspond to the intellect and culture... ... Psychological Encyclopedia

Contradictions, cf. 1. A thought or position that is incompatible with another, refutes another, inconsistency in thoughts, statements and actions, a violation of logic or truth. Fall into contradiction. Contradiction in theory. Contradiction in own... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

- ... Wikipedia

Infectious diseases Leukoencephalitis Leukoencephalitis is a variant of inflammatory lesions of the brain, in which predominantly the pathways are affected, i.e. white matter of the brain. It is believed that leukoencephalitis is infectious... ... Wikipedia

THOUGHT EXPERIMENT- a type of cognitive activity that is built according to the type of a real experiment and has its structure, but develops entirely in an ideal plan. It is in this fundamental position that the activity of the imagination manifests itself here, which gives... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy

Books

• Money, Bank Credit and Economic Cycles / Money, Bank Credit and Economic Cycles, Huerta de Soto H. / Huerta de Soto. 663 pp. The book is devoted to a comprehensive examination of the central institution of the modern economic order of banking on the basis of fractional reserve with the central bank and ...

Law of Sufficient Reason

It is associated with the law of contradiction and with the concept of contradictory propositions, which cannot be both true and false.

Law of the excluded middle

It is formulated as follows: “Two contradictory judgments about the same subject, taken at the same time and in the same relation, cannot be simultaneously true or false. If one of them is true, the other is false. There is no third". Symbolically it is expressed by the following formula: a Øа, reads “a or not a”, where a is a statement.

Examples: 1) the sentence passed on the accused involves only two options: either he is guilty or he is not guilty, there is no third option; 2) an example of contradictory judgments: “All accused have the right to defense” and “Some accused do not have the right to defense.”

It is formulated as follows: “Every thought, in order to become reliable, must be justified by other thoughts, the truth of which is proven or obvious.”

This law requires that our judgments about an object and its properties should not be unfounded, but logically follow from reliable facts and arguments, i.e. requires evidence of thinking. Judgments that are given to justify the truth of another judgment are called logical grounds. A judgment that follows from a logical basis is called a logical consequence. The basis may be the laws and axioms of science, statistical data, objective experience of social development, etc. An example of reasoned reasoning might be the following: “This substance is electrically conductive (consequence), because it is metal (base)". The law of sufficient reason is not violated, since a consequence necessarily follows from the reason c (from the fact that a substance is a metal, it necessarily follows that it is electrically conductive, since the electrical conductivity of metals has been proven by science).

This law is based on an important legal principle - the presumption of innocence.

On violation law of identity based on a false alibi, false or erroneous testimony of witnesses or the defendant in court, indication of a false trail, etc. Quite often, violation of the law of identity is used in journalism. For example, on the front page of a newspaper you read an intriguing headline (announcement) like “Finally, a perpetual motion machine has been created!” or “There is a dog in California who predicts the future.” However, after purchasing the issue and reading the article, you are convinced that its content does not correspond to the title at all.

You can give the following example of substitution of concepts (different meanings embedded in the same words): “Teacher to student: “I hope I don’t see that you are copying.” Student to teacher: “I hope so too...” An example when different non-identical situations are identified: Judge to the victim: “You claim that the accused called you a fool. This is true?" “The honest truth, Mr. Judge.” “Then what are you complaining about?”

A classic example of a violation law of contradiction is a quote from the work of I.S. Turgenev “Rudin”:

"Wonderful!" - said Rudin. “So, in your opinion, there are no convictions?”

“No and does not exist.”

“Is this your belief?”

“How can you say that they don’t exist? Here’s one for you, for the first time.”

Examples of violations law of excluded middle the following judgments can be recognized as simultaneously true or at the same time false: “All businessmen of the city are honest” and “Some businessmen of the city are not honest”, “Mariupol is a populated area” and “Mariupol is not a populated area”.

An example of a violation law of sufficient reason The following statements can be considered: “The crime was committed by N., since he himself confessed to it and signed all the testimony with his own hand,” “Student Ivanov should be given a test in physics, since he is leaving for a competition.” Another example: a student says to the teacher during an exam: “Don’t give me a bad mark, ask me something else, I read the textbook, maybe I’ll answer something.”